History of Electronics III

Contd from

Previous blog links
Discovery of Electron
http://mrinalkantipal.blogspot.in/2012/03/history-of-electronics.html 

Invention of Wireless Telegraphy
http://mrinalkantipal.blogspot.in/2012/03/history-of-electronics-ii_18.html 

How old is the electronics?

Who can say?
How can we say that when the electronics started? The answer is very difficult.
As long as the memory goes back we can say that in Greek and Indian mythology the people having extraordinary power were able to send message very quickly. So, what was the basis of that technology? Were they using any kind of wireless devices, whose components are electronic as today’s wireless devices. What ever it may be there is no clear idea of those technologies or no proof that whether they were using those things.

History of Electronics is as old as history of civilization itself.

In the 21st century we are enjoying well developed electronics. In some form or the other everyday we deal with the electronic devices several times. So why we are interested to look at the past? Because it is required. Like the history of a nation from which its people get inspired (or learn something from their past faults) the history of any science inspires its future generations. Even more than that those who spent their whole life for the inventions/discoveries, they did not do that for themselves rather they did it for the whole society, the whole world. So we should tribute them. This electronic world was not just the effort of some years or decades, rather it is the result of the hard work of great minds since ages. So now it is the time to remember them.

In our present discussion we shall start from the discovery of Electron.

Download the PPT file on History of Electronics

http://www.divshare.com/download/17064622-b54 

view the slide show



In the series of articles to follow we shall go in the order given below:

1. CATHODE RAYS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON -- Crookes, Braun, Roentgen, Thomson, Millikan


2. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY: Hertz, Branly, Lodge, Marconi


3. VACUUM TUBES: Edison, Fleming, De Forest, Coolidge, Schottky, Langmuir.


4. RADIO: Fessenden, Armstrong, Hazeltine, Black.


5. TELEVISION CATHODE RAYS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON: Baird, Farnesworth, Zworykin.


6. RADAR: Watson-Watt, Loomis, Rabi, Alvarez, Purcell, Dicke.


7. ELECTRONS AND WAVES: Boltzmann, Planck, DeBroglie, Schrödinger, Fermi, Dirac, Bloch, Peierls, Wilson.


8. TRANSISTORS: Southworth, Ohl, Lark-Horovitz, Shockley, Brattain, Bardeen.

VacuumTubes

The Edison effect, the appearance of an electric current flowing between a heated cathode and an anode in an evacuated tube, was a mysterious phenomenon when it was discovered in 1882; it was not understood how electric current could pass through a vacuum. Thomson's identification of cathode rays as streams of electrons resolved the mystery and led to the invention of the thermionic diode by Fleming. The diode, intended to serve as a rectifier to detect radiotelegraphic signals, had little impact as the coherer, invented by Branly and Lodge, and crystal and magnetic detectors continued to be used. The invention of the triode by DeForest, however, did revolutionize radio communication.

Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) was owner or co-owner of a record 1,093 patents. He also invented the modern industrial research laboratory. In 1882, when one of his engineers, William Hammer, observed the "Edison Effect" during the course of experiments about the incandescent lamp, Edison, for reasons which he could not later explain, uncharacteristically did not follow up on the discovery. But, as he later admitted, at the time he did not even understand Ohm's law. The Edison effect remained an unexplained curiosity for fifteen years until the discovery of the electron.

John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945) had a remarkable career which spanned the first seventy-five years of the development of electronics. Fleming was a student of Maxwell’s who later worked as a consultant for Edison and then Marconi. In 1904, following Edison’s observation of the passage of current from the filament to an anode in a light bulb and J.J. Thomson’s discovery that cathode rays consisted of charged particles, Fleming invented and patented the first electronic rectifier, the diode, or Fleming Valve. The device was intended for use in detecting the spark-generated radio waves of the time, replacing the other devices used by the pioneers of radio communication. Fleming was knighted in 1929.

Lee De Forest(1873-1961), son of a Congregational minister who was president of the Talledega College for Negroes in Alabama, lived a long life full of controversy. He was defrauded by partners, was involved in numerous patent suits, went through two divorces, and once was indicted (but later acquitted) for mail fraud for seeking to sell a worthless device (his audion tube), De Forest held more than 300 patents but is most remembered for initiating the electronic revolution with his 1906 invention of the audion tube, a three-element vacuum tube in which the grid controlled the current, which made modern radio possible. In 1912 he conceived the idea of cascading triodes to achieve high amplification and also independently discovered regenerative feedback.

William D. Coolidge (1873-1975), an electrical engineering graduate of MIT and the University of Leipzig, joined the General Electric Research Lab after a brief career in Academia. In 1911, he succeeded in fabricating a ductile form of tungsten which provided the filaments for modern incandescent lamps and also patented a thoriated cathode with improved emission for use in vacuum tubes. In 1913 Coolidge invented a hot-tungsten filament x-ray tube which provided a more penetrating and reliable source for radiology. The "Coolidge tube" became the standard generator of medical x-rays.

Walter Schottky (1886-1976) discovered the random noise due to the irregular arrival of electrons at the anode of thermionic tubes that is called "shot noise" (Schottky effect) in 1914 while studying under Planck in Berlin. Schottky was Swiss, but he was educated and spent his professional career in Germany. In 1919 he invented the first multiple grid vacuum tube, the tetrode. Schottky obtained multiple doctoral degrees, taught at universities from 1920 to 1927, and then worked for Siemans for nearly five decades. He was the first to note the existence of "holes" in the band structure of semiconductors, discovered the type of lattice vacancy known as the Schottky defect, and in 1938 created a theory that explained rectification at a metal/semiconductor interface.

Irving Langmuir (1881-1957), son of a struggling Brooklyn businessman, showed a precocious interest in Science. He received his degrees in Chemistry, but, tiring of the endless round teaching elementary courses and paper grading required of professors, left academia and went to the General Electric Research Laboratory. His work on molecular films won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1932, and his studies on hot filaments in gases became the basis for improvements in incandescent lighting and a huge industry. His discoveries about the emission of electrons from cathodes and their behavior in vacuum tubes formed the basis for the design of a variety of tube types.

Previous links

Discovery of Electron
http://mrinalkantipal.blogspot.in/2012/03/history-of-electronics.html

Invention of Wireless Telegraphy
http://mrinalkantipal.blogspot.in/2012/03/history-of-electronics-ii_18.html

History of Electronics II

It may seem mundane to us today, but to audiences at popular scientific lectures, the glow in this simple cathode tube was eerie, and to physicists it presented a challenging mystery.

Wireless Telegraphy

Contd from previous blog  
http://mrinalkantipal.blogspot.in/2012/03/history-of-electronics.html

view the slide show

Maxwell’s equation

Maxwell's 1865 publication of  a theory which unified electrodynamics, magnetodynamics, and optics had seemingly little impact in Britain where it was not widely accepted.   Surprisingly, during the remaining fourteen years of his life, Maxwell, who was a skillful experimentalist, did not attempt to verify the existence of the electromagnetic waves that his theory predicted. However, the leading German scientist of the period, von Helmholtz, believed the Maxwell theory and he set his pupil Hertz on the track of producing and detecting electromagnetic radiation, opening the path to wireless communication.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894), a professor of physics at Karlsruhe Polytechnic, was the first to broadcast and receive radio waves in the laboratory. Between 1885 and 1889, he used spark discharges to produce electromagnetic waves. Hertz's radiator consisted of a pair of aligned rods, with a spark gap between them and capacitative plates at their ends. His receiver was a loop of wire with a small gap across which a small spark could be observed when the radiator discharged. Herz died suddenly of a brain tumor when he was thirty six, perhaps never realizing that transmission and reception over long distances was possible.

Edouard Eugène Désiré Branly (1844-1940) is revered in France as the inventor of wireless telegraphy.  In 1890, Branly, a professor of Physics at the Catholic University of Paris, discovered that when exposed to even a distant spark transmission field, loose zinc and silver filings would cohere and provide a path of increased conductivity that could be used to detect the presence of the transmission. The "coherer" took radio transmission out of the laboratory and made communication over long distances possible.

Oliver Joseph Lodge (1851-1940) held the chair in Physics at the University College in Liverpool when he demonstrated a practical form of the Branly coherer in 1894. Lodge added a device that shook the filings loose between spark receptions. It became a standard device in early wireless telegraphy.  Lodge also obtained the first patents for the use of tuned circuits to adjust the frequency of receivers and transmitters. After 1900, however, Lodge devoted himself to psychic research and attempts to communicate with the dead. In 1902 he was appointed the first principal of the new Birmingham University.

Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) failed the entrance exams to the Italian Naval Academy and the University of Bologna but was allowed by a family friend to attend lectures and laboratory at the university. In 1896, at age twenty-two, he patented a successful system of radio telegraphy . In the following years he introduced a notable series of inventions and ingenious redesigns of transmitting and receiving system components. In 1901 Marconi succeeded in receiving signals transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. It may be fairly said that Marconi single-handedly advanced the development of radio telegraphy by decades. Marconi's Wireless Telegraphy Company soon established a net of coast stations in Britain for ship-to-shore communication

These were taken over by the British General Post Office in 1910, but for more than a decade the Marconi Company enjoyed a monopoly on maritime radio equipment sales by virtue of an agreement with Lloyds of London to only insure ships that used their equipment.   In 1909 Marconi received the Nobel Prize for Physics.

Prev  Cathode Ray and Discovery of electron   
http://mrinalkantipal.blogspot.in/2012/03/history-of-electronics.html  

Next History of Invention of Vacuum Tubes

History of Electronics

History of Electronics


download the PPT file on History of Electronics

http://www.divshare.com/download/17064622-b54

View Slide Show on Developement of Electronics Science
  

I. CATHODE RAYS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON: Crookes, Braun, Roentgen, Thomson, Millikan
II. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY: Hertz, Branly, Lodge, Marconi
III. VACUUM TUBES: Edison, Fleming, De Forest, Coolidge, Schottky, Langmuir
IV. RADIO: Fessenden, Armstrong, Hazeltine, Black
V. TELEVISION: Baird, Farnesworth, Zworykin
VI. RADAR: Watson-Watt, Loomis, Rabi, Alvarez, Purcell, Dicke
VII. ELECTRONS AND WAVES: Boltzmann, Planck, DeBroglie, Schrödinger, Fermi, Dirac, Bloch, Peierls, Wilson

VIII. Transistors:  Southworth, Ohl , Lark-Horovitz, Shockley, Brattain, Bardeen

Cathode Rays & the Discovery of the Electron

Although many of the pioneers of 19th Century physics, including Faraday, were convinced on the basis of chemistry and the phenomena observed in electrolysis that electric current consisted of the flow of particles of charge, the nature of these charges was not understood. Even the basic question of whether the charge of the particles was positive or negative remained undetermined. The answers to these questions, and to the basic structure of matter, were resolved by experiments that began with the study of electric discharges in evacuated tubes. Along the way a series of discoveries were made which led to the technological revolution of the 20th Century.

William Crookes (1832-1919), heir at an early age to a large fortune, carried out his investigations in a private laboratory. His studies of electrical discharges in gases, which followed the development of the cathode ray tube by Pluecker and Hittorf, and his observations of cathode rays and the dark space at the cathode led to the discovery of x-rays and of the electron. Crookes also invented the radiometer, whose eventual explication verified the kinetic theory of gases. Curiously, Crookes was a believer in the occult and in the 1870’s claimed to have verified the authenticity of psychic phenomena. Later he became involved in the Theosophical Movement and there are references to his having exorcised demons. In 1897 Crookes was knighted by Queen Victoria (who is also reputed to have had an interest in the occult) and in 1909 was elected president of the Royal Society.

Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918) was director of the Physical Institute and a professor of Physics at the University of Strasbourg when he demonstrated the first cathode ray tube oscillograph, guiding a narrow stream of electrons to a fluorescent screen and presaging the modern television screen. Although little remembered today, Braun made several important contributions. He discovered that rectification occurs at a crystal/metal junction, leading to the introduction of crystal receivers. In 1899, he introduced (sparkless) inductive coupling to antennas and the first directive beam antenna. He received the Nobel Prize in 1909 along with Guglielmo Marconi. Braun was in New York to testify in a patent suit when the United States entered World War I; he was interned as an enemy alien and died before the war ended.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845 -1923) was 44 years old, head of the Physical Institute and recently retired Rector (President) of the University of Wurzburg when, in November, 1895, he discovered that some unknown radiation coming from a Crookes tube could cause crystals to fluoresce, pass through solid objects, and affect photographic plates. Working alone, sometimes sleeping in his laboratory, and maintaining great secrecy, he completed his research and eight weeks later announced his discovery. The scientific and medical implications of his work were immediately recognized and reported world-wide following its publication on New Year’s Day in 1896. Within a few weeks some hospitals began to use x-rays. Roentgen became one of the most renowned scientists in the world. He received many honors, including the first Nobel prize in Physics and an offer (refused) to be raised to the nobility.



J(oseph) J(ohn) Thomson (1856-1940), the son of a Manchester bookseller, entered college at fourteen and at twenty-eight was elected a fellow of the Royal Society and appointed to the Chair of Physics at the Cavendish Laboratory. His great discovery occurred in 1897 during the course of his investigations of cathode rays. Thomson provided convincing evidence that the rays consisted of charged particles; he measured the ratio of charge to mass and was able to estimate that the mass was equal to about 1/1800 of the mass of a hydrogen atom. His discovery of the electron won the Nobel Prize in 1906 and he was knighted two years later. Thomson was described by Rutherford as having "a most radiating smile, … when he is scoring off anyone."

Robert A. Millikan (1868 -1953) began his career as a classics major at Oberlin College, but agreed to teach Physics in order to earn more money. When he was offered a fellowship in Physics at Columbia he accepted, but again only because it was the best offer he could get financially. His academic career at the University of Chicago was at first devoted to teaching and administration and he did not begin to do research seriously until he was almost forty. Then, in 1906 he began to devise a series of improvements to the Thomson experiment that led to the oil-drop apparatus in which the charge of the electron was measured conclusively. His results were published in 1910 and the last resistance to the atomic theory of matter was dispelled. In 1914 he published the results of the research for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize - the direct determination of Plank’s constant using the photoelectric effect - verifying the 1905 Einstein theory of the photoelectric effect and the quantum nature of light.

Next  look for WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY - History of Development

Cascode Amplifier - A Short Note

Cascode Amplifier  -  Fundamentals

Cascode amplifier is a two stage circuit consisting of a transconductance amplifier followed by a buffer amplifier. The word “cascode” was originated from the phrase “cascade to cathode”. This circuit have a lot of advantages over the single stage amplifier like, better input output isolation, better gain, improved bandwidth, higher input impedance, higher output impedance, better stability, higher slew rate etc. The reason behind the increase in bandwidth is the reduction of Miller effect. Cascode amplifier is generally constructed using FET ( field effect transistor) or BJT ( bipolar junction transistor). One stage will be usually wired in common source/common emitter mode and the other stage will be wired in common base/ common emitter mode.

Miller effect.

Miller effect is actually the multiplication of the drain to source stray capacitance by the voltage gain. The drain to source stray capacitance always reduces the bandwidth and when it gets multiplied by the voltage gain the situation is made further worse. Mulitiplication of stray capacitance increases the effective input capacitance and as we know, for an amplifier, the increase in input capacitance increases the lower cut of frequency and that means reduced bandwidth. Miller effect can be reduced by adding a current buffer stage at the output of the amplifier or by adding a voltage buffer stage before the input.

FET Cascode amplifier.

                                                    FET Cascode Amplifier - Basic Circuit

The circuit diagram of a typical Cascode amplifier using FET is shown above. The input stage of the circuit is an FET common source amplifier and the input voltage (Vin) is applied to its gate. The output stage is an FET common gate amplifier which is driven by the input stage. Rd is the drain resistance of the output stage. Output voltage (Vout) is taken from the drain terminal of Q2. Since the gate of Q2 is grounded, FET Q2′s source voltage and the FET Q1′s drain voltage are held almost constant. That means the upper FET Q2 offers a low input resistance to the lower FET Q1. This reduces the gain of lower FET Q1 and as a result the Miller effect also gets reduced which results in increased bandwidth. The reduction in gain of the lower FET Q1 does not affect the overall gain because the upper FET Q2 compensates it. The upper FET Q2 is not affected by the Miller effect because the charging and discharging of the drain to source stray capacitance is carried out through the drain resistor and the load and the frequency response if affected only for high frequencies (well over the audio range).

In Cascode configuration, the output is well isolated from the input. Q1 has almost constant voltage at the drain and source terminals while Q2 has almost constant voltage at its source and gate terminals and practically there is nothing to feed back from the output to input. The only points with importance in terms of voltage are the input and output terminals and they are well isolated by a central connection of constant voltage.

Practical Cascode amplifier circuit.

                                                          Practical cascode amplifier circuit

A practical Cascode amplifier circuit based on FET is shown above. Resistors R4 and R5 form a voltage divider biasing network for the FET Q2. R3 is the drain resistor for Q2 and it limits the drain current. R2 is the source resistor of Q1 and C1 is its by-pass capacitor. R1 ensures zero voltage at the gate of Q1 during zero signal condition.

Fish oil – Excellent Nutrient for Heart and Skin

Fish oil – Excellent Nutrient for Heart and Skin

Fish oil is probably the most important dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are vital nutrients. These fatty acids reduce inflammation, protect against the abnormal clotting associated with heart attacks, inhibit cancer, and protect brain function. There may be other benefits, too: a 1992 study published in the journal Lancet, for example, suggested that omega-3 fatty acids prolong pregnancy by a few days and improve birth weights.

The basic building blocks of our brain cells are essential fatty acids such as EPA and DHA from fish oil. These fatty acids are also used as fuel for brain metabolism and help control the chronic inflammatory processes involved in degenerative brain disorders.

Salmon oil mainly contains omega-3 fatty acids. This is considered to be an excellent way to boost up the HDL in the blood. There are many benefits and uses of salmon oil and generally side effects are uncommon. After many a research and discoveries that followed, salmon oil has proven to be excellent and extremely essential for health. In other words, salmon oil is known to be very advantageous for health, at almost every stage of life.

Wild Salmon Oil benefits include natural Astaxanthin (not synthetic). It is the primary carotenoid pigment that gives salmon its rich pink color, and it is a powerful antioxidant.

Wild Salmon Oil inhibits at least two of the major causes of skin aging: It reverses skin aging by inhibiting inflammation. And it protects the skin from photo-aging (sun skin aging).

Photo-aging is what causes skin on the face to age faster than skin on the buttocks, which are rarely exposed to solar radiation. Studies show omega-three oils to improve resistance to sunburn.

Salmon is called Brain Food because it contains DHA, an omega-3 oil that makes up much of the brain's tissue structure. DHA is required for normal brain structure.

Brains deficient in DHA will substitute other fatty acids, causing cumulative deformities in brain structure. DHA supplementation can reverse those deformities. It is a good idea to take the best fish oil supplement any time a "bad" fat is eaten.

One study showed that rats fed a diet low in DHA had brain damage that passed down to their offspring.

Studies show that as little as 200 mg per day of DHA supplements can improve I.Q. and reverse learning disabilities.

Wild Salmon Oil benefits:

• skin conditions such as inflammation or dry skin *

• "wrinkle cure" for wrinkled scaly skin *

• internal moisturizing *

• brain structure *

• cognitive function *

• ocular nutrition *

• cardiovascular system *

• joint health *

• internal organs *

• hair and nails *

• best fish oil supplement for omega three *

Salmon oil is used for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Researchers believe that it is very useful as a measure of protection against heart attack.

Salmon oil is said to be a very good supply of essential nutrients for the body, as the oil supplements are known to be very beneficial for eyesight.

Salmon oil is known to reduce the 'bad' cholesterol in the body as it increases the HDL in the blood.

Inflammation in the body can cause excruciating pain, discomfort and decreased mobility. This is yet another benefit of salmon oil - it helps in reducing the inflammation.

Salmon oil is also packed with essential fatty acids. These help in the reduction of the symptoms of diseases such as asthma, gallstones, psoriasis, arthritis, atherosclerosis, Crohn's disease, etc. Studies have shown that children who consume fresh salmon fish regularly have a lower risk of developing asthma than others who generally avoid the consumption of fish.

Salmon oil is also known to prevent prostate cancer.

It also helps in reducing the chances of breast cancer.

Research has shown that the right intake of salmon oil also reduces the feeling of depression. Low levels of intake have shown high level of depression between people as compared to those who consumed this at least twice a week.

A high intake of salmon oil is also linked to a decline in the suffering caused by Alzheimer's disease. Low levels of it can cause frequent memory losses later on in life.

Salmon oil also helps in lowering high blood pressure.

One of the other benefits of salmon oil is that it reduces the pain caused by menstrual cramps.

The wild variety of salmon oil is a rich source of amino acids that aids metabolism as well as cellular, muscular and osteal recuperation.

The wild variety is also a grand source of vitamins A, B, B6, D and E which basically boosts your body circulation and immunity.

Uses of Salmon Oil

Omega-3 fish oil has uses that are far reaching. The most popular use of salmon oil is in its role as a natural and effective pain reliever. It is also one of the safest kinds available. Therefore, it is used in numerous medications. Drugs that used omega-3 fish oil proved to be more effective for people suffering from inflammatory diseases, respiratory diseases, etc.
Salmon oil is also unique because it provides an added boost of omega-3s compared to any other kind of oil. It is the most complete omega-3 fish oil supplement.

When taking an intake of salmon oil supplements, moderation is the keyword. The supplements are very useful for brain development and memory function. It enhances the power of recall and also aids concentration levels. Salmon oil capsules need to be taken under medical supervision to ensure you have the right balance. In some cases, there have been side effects such as a fishy taste, belching problems and nausea. But with proper instructions, even these can be diminished.

Salmon oil is a miracle food that helps us maintain a healthy body due to all its beneficial properties. The uses of salmon oil are aplenty and it is only a matter of correct usage that will give us the best effects in the long run.

Binaural Beat – Capable of Inducing Deep Meditation

Binaural Beat – Capable of Inducing Deep Meditation


Binaural Beats are specific frequencies that can bring you into a profoundly deep state of meditation within minutes using the latest innovations in sound technology. They utilize a specific audio mixing technique designed to alter the listener's brain wave activity. By sitting or lying down in a quiet environment and wearing headphones these beats can be used to create Alpha, Theta and Delta brainwave patterns. When brainwave patterns change it has been documented that there is also a change in chemical reactions within the body which can have a profound effect on your entire physical structure. In effect these beats have the same impact and benefits of a deep meditative state akin to hypnologic trance or transcendental meditation. Now very few people can enter such deep states of hypnosis and transcendental meditation takes a lifetime to perfect. So the immediate benefits of using a binaural beats recording is apparent. An added benefit of using such technology is that the states it creates allow you to access the subconscious parts of the mind. Those parts that are subliminal and just below the conscious threshold.

We experience binaural beats when we hear two different frequencies, one in each ear. The binaural beat is defined as the difference between the two pitches. For example, if you hear a 200Hz sound in one ear and a 190Hz sound in the other you’ll hear a 10Hz binaural beat because 200 - 190 = 10.

Binaural beats can be used with many other self improvement tools (such as subliminal recordings, affirmations or visualization etc.) to increase your personal development dramatically as it creates deep states of relaxation and can put you into Alpha and Theta states. Therefore they can be used as an aid to alter beliefs, heal emotional issues or create behaviour changes. One of the great benefits they can give is a quick energy boost equivalent to a few hours sleep.

It is believed that by using binaural beats you can:

1. Create deep states of meditation.

2. Boost your intelligence and creativity.

3. Slow aging.

4. Remove emotional blocks, old traumas and create profound emotional changes at an extremely deep level.

5. Eliminate Stress & anxiety.

The beauty of binaural beats is that they can be used to induce these states and create these changes with no effort on the part of the listener. You just wear a set of headphones and let the sound technology do the rest. The discovery of binaural technology is mostly accredited to Dr. Gerald Oster. Oster first published research about binaural beats in 1973 in Scientific American after he had conducted extensive studies. However, this is not as well known, binaural beats where in fact first discovered as far back as 1839 by an Associate Professor, at the University of Berlin, called Heinrich Wilhelm Dove. Dove accidentally discovered that when two similar sounds, which are only slightly shifted in frequency, are given separately to left and right ear they cause a pulsation or beat type effect within the brain. However, it was Dr. Oster who uncovered the full benefits of using this new technology when he discovered the effects that binaural beats have on the mind and body.

Fixed Pitch Binaural Beats


gamma 40 Hz


high beta 25 Hz

mid beta 20 Hz

low beta 15 Hz

high alpha 12 Hz

mid alpha 10 Hz

low alpha 8 Hz

high theta 6 Hz

mid theta 5 Hz

low theta 4 Hz

delta 2.5 Hz

The alpha brainwave patterns are only apparent during a relaxed state. Alpha brainwaves are the most apparent brainwave state encountered during hypnosis and when we experience this state, which do constantly throughout the day, we are extremely susceptible to suggestion. This is the state that you enter during hypnosis. Theta brainwaves allow for the absorption of huge amounts of information while Delta brainwaves are most apparent when you enter a state of deep but dreamless sleep. It is the Delta state that is the main aim of such practices as transcendental meditation. Although for many entering the delta state while fully conscious can be very relaxing, for most it is not, for it is during such brain activity that internal change occurs. Through deep meditative states you can activate profound positive changes in your body, mind and emotional state which remain permanent.

Delta Wave for meditation



Download link

http://www.divshare.com/download/16982066-a1e 

Theta wave 5 hz meditation audio



Download link
http://www.divshare.com/download/16982383-4d6

Brain wave for healing list

Specific Brain Frequencies



The information below shows the effects of specific frequencies within each brain wave frequency range:


Delta Brain Waves ( O.5 to 4Hz)


0.5 Hz - Relaxation, helps soothe headaches


0.5 - 1.5 Hz - Pain relief. Endorphin release


0.9 Hz - Euphoric feeling


1 Hz - Well being. Harmony and balance


2.5 Hz - Production of endogenous opiates (pain killers, reduce anxiety)


2.5 Hz - Relieves migraine pain. Produces endogenous opiates


3.4 Hz - Helps achieve restful sleep


3.5 Hz - Feeling of unity with everything. Whole being regeneration


3.9 Hz - Self renewal, enhanced inner awareness


4.0 Hz - Enkephalin release for reduced stress


4.0 Hz - Allows brain to produce enkaphalins, all natural pain killer


4.0 Hz - Full memory scanning. Releases enkephalins


4.0 Hz - Vital for memory and learning. Problem solving, object naming


1 - 3 Hz - Profound relaxation, restorative sleep. Tranquillity and peace


Theta Brain Waves ( 4 to 8 Hz)


4.5 Hz - Brings about Shamanic/Tibetan state of consciousness, Tibetan chants.


4.9 Hz - Induce relaxation and deeper sleep


4.9 Hz - Introspection. Relaxation, meditation


5 Hz - Reduces sleep required. Theta replaces need for extensive dreaming


5.35 Hz - Allows relaxing breathing, free and efficient


5.5 Hz - Inner guidance, intuition


6.5 Hz - Centre of Theta frequency. Activates creative frontal lobe


7.5 Hz - Activates creative thought for art, invention, music. Problem solving


7.5 Hz - Ease of overcoming troublesome issues


7.83 Hz - Schumann earth resonance. Grounding, meditative, Leaves you revitalized


3 - 8 Hz - Deep relaxation, meditation. Lucid dreaming


3 - 8 Hz - Increased memory, focus, creativity


4 - 7 Hz - Profound inner peace, emotional healing. Lowers mental fatigue


4 - 7 Hz - Deep meditation, near-sleep brainwaves.


Alpha brain waves ( 8 to 12Hz)


8- 10 Hz Super-learning new information, memorisation, not comprehension.


8.22 Hz - Associated with the mouth. Brings creativity


10 Hz - Enhanced serotonin release. Mood elevation, arousal, stimulant


10 Hz - Provides relief from lost sleep, improves general mood


10 Hz - Mood elevator. Used to dramatically reduce headaches


10 Hz - Clarity, subconscious correlation. Releases serotonin


11 Hz - Relaxed yet awake state


12 Hz - Centering, mental stability.


11 - 14 Hz - Increased focus and awareness


12 - 14 Hz - Learning frequency, good for absorbing information passively


Beta brain waves ( 13 to 30Hz)


14 Hz - Awakeness, alert. Concentration on tasks, Focusing, vitality.


16 Hz - Bottom of hearing range. Releases oxygen/calcium into cells


12 - 15 Hz - Relaxed focus, improved attentive abilities


13 - 27 Hz - Promotes focused attention toward external stimuli


13 - 30 Hz - Problem solving, conscious thinking


18-24 Hz — Euphoria, can result in headaches, anxiety.


NB. Frequencies in italics cover more than one brain wave frequency range.

The release of endorphins by the delta brainwave can also be achieved by meditation, runners high, breathing exercises, etc

International Women's Day - Women in News 2011

Women in News 2011

The 11 who received the India Today Woman awards for their achievements in the past year from author-activist Mariane Pearl and India Today Group chairman and editor-in-chief Aroon Purie in Mumbai on January 14, 2011.

India Today
Woman in the Arts

Bharti Kher, Artist

A contemporary artist who explores magic realism and everyday sexuality, Kher stuns her audience with the the ingenuity of her ideas.

Woman as Storyteller
Anusha Rizvi, Filmmaker

Rizvi quit her job as a TV journalist to script and direct the critically acclaimed film Peepli [Live], which is India’s official entry for the Oscars.

Woman in Science
Aditi Pant, Oceanographer

Pant is the first Indian woman to have set foot on and spent an entire summer in Antarctica as part of the third Indian expedition to the frozen continent.

Woman in the Corporate Sector.

Anuradha Desai,

Chairperson,
Venkateshwara hatcheries

The poultry behemoth is the first Indian company to acquire an English Premier League club, Blackburn Rovers.

Deepika kumari, Archer; Commonwealth Games double gold winner.

Preeja Sreedharan, Long-distance runner; Asiad gold medalist

Geeta Kumari, Freestyle wrestler; CWG gold medalist

Woman Eye Catcher


Rahat Taslim, KBC winner

A small-town girl who became the only KBC crorepati in the reality show’s last season, even though she could not study beyond college because of family. pressure.

Woman in Public Service
Rachna Dhingra, Activist

She gave up a promising career with Dow Chemicals, USA, to move to Bhopal and campaign for justice for the victims of the gas tragedy & the affected families.

Woman in Public Affairs
Nirupama Rao, Foreign secretary

She is being honoured for her role in keeping India-Pakistan relations on an even keel in the difficult post-26/11 scenario.

Amway India - Woman Emerging Entrepreneur of the Year
Sister Mythili, Grassroots social entrepreneur


She did not let a polio-affected leg hold her back from becoming a social entrepreneur in her home state Kerala.

Woman in Sports
Krishna Poonia, Discus thrower

She is the first Indian woman ever to win a track and field gold at the Commonwealth Games.

(Source - India Today)

What is Sadism

What is Sadism


The term sadism in its classic and clinical sense refers to the sexual pleasure and gratification derived from inflicting pain and suffering on another person. The word sadism originally comes from the name of the French philosopher and writer the Marquis de Sade who authored several sadistic novels.

It may start with obsessive thoughts and sexual fantasies coupled with the desire to inflict physical or psychological torment or humiliation on another. It tends to be chronic in nature and usually increases in severity over time

Freud considered sadism to be almost inseparable from its counterpart, masochism, the desire to be controlled and dominated by another. He felt that the two were sides of the same coin and believed that both desires often coexisted within the same person.

The psychological basis of sadism centers on the desire to dominate and control. This desire is more often than not acted out in a sexual context and varies in the degree of violence from mere role-play to actual restraining, bondage, beating and torturing.

Sadistic behavior in men is thought to be the result of a distortion of the aggressive component of the male sexual instinct and sadistic acts are known to cause heightened levels of the male hormone, testosterone. Endorphins also play a part in the biology of sadism. The infliction of pain on others releases the same "feelgood" chemicals that are released during any intense exercise session.

There is no known blanket cause for sadistic behavior. Treatment is highly individualized and must include psychotherapy as well as cognitive and behavioral therapies. Hormonal therapy may be successful in reducing levels of aggression. [hmmm, No wonder]

Sadistic Personality Disorder

This disorder is characterized by cruel, aggressive, manipulative, and demeaning behavior directed towards others. Abusiveness and violence are common in the sadist's social relationships, because the sadist lacks concern for people and derives pleasure from harming or humiliating others. There are similarities between sadistic PD and the more aggressive antisocial PD, however, the antisocial person does not generally hurt others just for pleasure. There may also be an association between sadistic PD and sexual sadism, in which the person derives sexual arousal and satisfaction from sadistic acts like beating and humiliating someone.

Characteristics Of A Sadistic Person

• A sadistic person does not hesitate in humiliating people in front of others. The disgrace that he puts down on other person makes him feel unstoppable and supreme.

• He treats all the people under his control, irrespective whether the other person is a child, student, patient or prisoner, unkindly and harshly. All that he aims for is an unchallenged dominance in the relationship. Anyone who tries to lose free is treated in a callous manner.

• A sadist finds pleasure in harming or causing pain to others by lying without any motive behind achieving any other goal. The harm that he inflicts upon the other person makes him feel invincible and contented.

• Unlike normal people, a sadistic person frightens and terrorizes people for the sake of getting his work done.

• He often restricts the freedom of people with whom he shares a close relationship. For example, the spouse is not allowed to leave the house premises unaccompanied or the teen-age daughter is not permitted to attend social functions. Such is the person’s controlling nature that nobody is allowed to have his/her say. For a sadistic person, his is the final word and ultimate law. It must be obeyed, no matter how outrageous and senseless it may be.

• A sadistic person is highly enthralled by violence, weapons, martial arts, injury, death or torture. He/she channelizes the killer instinct in socially acceptable ways such as "studying" and admiring historical figures such as Hitler.

• He does not falter from using cruelty or violence for establishing dominance in any relationship. The ultimate goal is to have full and undivided control over the person or the situation.

Fourth Dimension - Simply Exlained Lesson II

The Fourth Diamension - Basic Concept


Imagine a point in space. It is a 0-hypercube. A point is zero dimensional because it has no width, length, or height, and is infinitely small. Every point is exactly the same and has the same measurements, because it has no dimension. Below is a picture of a point, representing the zeroth dimension.

First Dimension

Take the zero-dimensional point and extrude it in any direction, creating a line segment, which is a 1-hypercube. All line segments are one-dimensional because they differ in size by only one measurement, length. They all have the same width and height, which is infinitely small. If you expanded the line infinitely, it would cover one-dimensional space.


Second Dimension

Now take the line segment and extrude it in any direction that is perpendicular to the first direction, creating a square, which is a 2-hypercube. All squares are two dimensional because they differ with each other in size by two measurements, width and length. They all have the same height, which is infinitely small. All of the edges are the same length, and all of the angles are right angles. If you expanded the square infinitely, it
 wouldcover cover two-dimensional space.


Third Dimension


Take the non-infinite square and extrude it in a third direction, perpendicular to both of the first two directions, creating a cube, which is a 3-hypercube. All cubes are three dimensional because they differ with each other in size by all of the three measurements that we know of - width, length, and height. Just like the square, all of the edges within a single cube are the same length, and all of the angles are right angles. If you expanded the cube infinitely in all directions, it would cover three-dimensional space.



Fourth Dimension

Now, the final step. Take the non-infinite cube and extrude it in yet another direction perpendicular to the first three. But how can we do this? It is impossible to do within the restrictions of the third dimension (which will I refer to as realmspace in this webpage). However, within the fourth dimension (which I call tetraspace), it is possible. The shape that results from this extrusion of a cube into tetraspace is called a tesseract, which is a 4-hypercube. All tesseracts differ from other tesseracts in size by four measurements (equal to each other within a single tesseract) - width, length, height, and a fourth measurement, which I call trength. Looking back to the previous n-dimensional cubes, they all have the same trength, which is infinitely small. Just like the cube and square, all of the edges within a single tesseract are the same length, and all of the angles are right angles. If you expanded the tesseract infinitely, it would cover four-dimensional space.

There are several ways to view the tesseract. The first one is called an inner projection, and it is formed from a projecting the tesseract into realmspace with a perspective projection. The parts of the original tesseract that are farther away appear smaller in the inner projection. The original cube cell that existed before the extrusion into a tesseract is in gray, the paths of the vertices are in teal, and the stopping point of the extruded cube cell is in blue. The real tesseract isn't shaped like the inner projection shown below - the inner projection is a very distorted "image" of the original tesseract. All of the edges you see in the image are actually the same length as each other, and all angles between edges are right angles.


Soource - Internet teaching sites

Fourth Dimension - Simply Exlained Lesson

Source Wikipedia
Lessons on Fourth Dimension Concept

Lesson I
( prepared from internet resources)

Hyperspace Reality (from Wikipedia)

Hyperspace theory (also called Superstring or Supergravity theory) begins with Einstein's General Relativity. In 1919, Theodr Kaluza, building upon relativity, made an astounding discovery: light and gravity can be unified and expressed with identical mathematics. This was the beginning of the unification of all physical laws, which is the ultimate goal of physics. There was only one catch. He needed an extra dimension. This fifth dimension, long recognized as mathematically plausible, had never before been seriously proposed as an actual component of reality. The usefulness of his theory was hard to deny; in five dimensions, there is "enough room" to accomplish the unification of gravity and light, which simply cannot be accomplished when trapped in four dimensional spacetime.

Hyperspace theory (also called Superstring or Supergravity theory) begins with Einstein's General Relativity. In 1919, Theodr Kaluza, building upon relativity, made an astounding discovery: light and gravity can be unified and expressed with identical mathematics. This was the beginning of the unification of all physical laws, which is the ultimate goal of physics. There was only one catch. He needed an extra dimension. This fifth dimension, long recognized as mathematically plausible, had never before been seriously proposed as an actual component of reality. The usefulness of his theory was hard to deny; in five dimensions, there is "enough room" to accomplish the unification of gravity and light, which simply cannot be accomplished when trapped in four dimensional spacetime.

There is an obvious question to be asked at this point. "Where is the fifth dimension?" Kaluza's answer is clever, though suspiciously hard to test. He said that the fifth dimension is too small to see. The fifth dimension is contiguous with our four, but it is curled up, while the others are extended. To understand curled-up dimensions, imagine an ant living on a string (or a Linelander). For all its life, it is only aware of two directions: forward and backward. It lives in a one-dimensional universe. However, if you examine the string very closely, you find that it has a circumference; an extra dimension, curled up and wrapped back onto itself into a circle. If you could stretch this dimension, that is, make the circumference very large, the ant would be living on the two-dimensional surface of a cylinder. But when it's curled up, it effectively is undetectable by the ant, though it may serve as a medium for vibrations or other physical effects.

This Kaluza-Klein Theory (named after Kaluza and one of his students) was a curiosity for a while until people became disenchanted with its bizarre hypotheses and lack of concrete predictions. A common criticism was to ask why, if there could be one extra dimension, why not many? Just how many dimensions did this wacky theory have? For many years, people were content to leave gravity behind and work on examining the nature of subatomic matter via Quantum Mechanics.

Fortunately, in the 1980's, Kaluza-Klein came back with a vengence. The new wave of physicists supporting Hyperspace ("higher"-space) theories had an important element which was missing in the thirties: an exact prediction of the number of dimensions in our universe. By manipulating the formulae of Einstein, Riemann, and the like, they managed to unify all the forces of nature (gravity, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and the electromagnetic force, which includes light) in a single theory. How many dimensions did they need? Ten.

According to Hyperspace theory, each point in our four-dimensional universe conceals an additional six curled-up dimensions. The image at left provides insight on how this might be possible. Here we have a two-dimensional plane viewed at great magnification. At each point in the plane, there are the two curled-up dimensions of a sphere. In our universe, each point contains not a sphere, but a higher-dimensional object: a six-dimensional "Calabi-Yau Manifold." There is a very simple reason why we can't see these manifolds: they are less than 10^-33 centimeters across, much smaller than our most powerful microscopes can detect. Nonetheless, the movement of vibrating "strings" through these manifolds may be the source of all of physics.